Genetic engineering is the scientific practice of altering the DNA of an organism. This is done on not only plants and animals, but has been advancing to humans. The purpose of genetic engineering is to produce calmer animals, larger crops, and healthier humans. Scientists have discovered many cures to diseases as well as have promising research that more cures will be discovered. Genetic engineering is defined as the scientific alteration of the structure of genetic material in a living organism; this is done through using recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, technology, which is the technology of preparing recombinant DNA in vitro by cutting up DNA molecules and splicing together fragments from more than one organism. Genetic engineering of humans was first attempted in 1990 in a series of gene therapy trials, which were attempts to treat genetic diseases at the molecular level by correcting what is wrong with defective genes. Because genetically engineering the DNA of a human is highly controversial, some believe it should not continue to be studied or experimented with. Genetic engineering has such a promising outcome that it should continue to be studied. 

The Human Genome Project, or HGP, was an international study of the entire human genetic material in DNA. It was completed in 2003, after thirteen years of experimentation, but was not published as complete until three years later in 2006 (Hodgkinson). The HGP involved over one thousand scientists from all over the world and cost an estimated three billion dollars. The HGP was able to identify all of the approximately twenty thousand to twenty-five thousand genes in human DNA. HGP determined the sequences of three billion chemical pairs that make up the DNA of humans (Hodgkinson). The project made it possible for researchers to identify errors in genes that cause or contribute to disease. Once a gene is located on a chromosome, scientists work out its DNA sequence and are able to determine which protein the gene is responsible for making and how that protein affects the body.  Genetic engineering promises breakthroughs in preventing birth defects before the infant is even born, ensuring a healthy life to fetuses with a number of diseases (Hodgkinson). The knowledge of human genes will allow scientists to use the information to develop ways to treat, cure, and possibly prevent thousands of diseases. 

Genetically altering one's DNA is a great risk to the health of an individual. Scientists and bioethicists often assure us that human genetic engineering will not be tried until it is guaranteed not to result in genetic damage (Juengst). Scientists say that the benefits outweigh the risks. Religious groups question whether human genetic engineering is ethical, and most believe that it is not up to man to create a specific type of human (Moral and Ethical Issues in Gene Therapy).  Because of these risks and the religious controversy the opinions of the population are greatly split, the public opinion of genetic engineering on humans varies depending on the reason for modifying. When dealing with correcting genetic disorders of embryos, it was considered highly acceptable by most (Doudna). Changing a child into a 'designer baby' was, however, deemed highly unacceptable (Doudna). Not all issues were so clear-cut, though; in considering whether they would "approve if parents offered way to change their own genes in order to have children who would be smarter, stronger, or better looking" many of the polls were split rather closely. The line between right and wrong is not a clear one when it comes to genetically engineering humans, and is one that does not necessarily have a right or wrong answer (Juengst). Because of this no matter what extent of human genetic engineering becomes available to the public there will always be those that disagree.

Human genetic engineering is being pursued and studied at great lengths because of its numerous advantages. Over the past fifteen years, human genetic engineering has cured certain autoimmune and heart diseases (Wade). Other diseases including Huntington's disease, which is a hereditary degenerative brain disorder which slowly erases an individual's ability to talk, walk, think, and reason, as well as cystic fibrosis which is an inherited chronic disease which affects the lungs and digestive system, are caused by a defective gene. Recently, genetic engineering has offered the first sign of hope to those suffering with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy with their first breakthrough at discovering a potential treatment since none are being administered currently (Wade). By using genetic engineering on individuals with such diseases, there is hope that soon inserting a corrected gene or performing genetic surgery could cure these diseases.

While pregnant many women choose to screen the fetuses for genetic defects, which can allow parents and physicians to prepare for these children who "may have special needs before, during, or after delivery." A possible future benefit of genetically engineering humans is that, by the usage of gene therapy, a fetus with a genetic disorder could be treated. This could cure the fetus even before it is born. Currently, there is research being done on gene therapy for embryos even before they are implanted into the mother through in-vitro fertilization, or IVF (Glenn). By curing infants before they are born it could be ensured that they would grow up much healthier. Genetic engineering can also allow one to manipulate the genes that they would pass on to any children they would have. This could allow a family with a history of genetic diseases to prevent passing it on to future generations (Glenn). Such benefits could actually make genetic diseases a thing of the past.

Although controversial, one major benefit of human genetic engineering is what is referred to as 'savior siblings'. This method of human genetic engineering has already been implemented. Savior siblings are made when a parent chooses a certain DNA sequence and a series of embryos are tested until the one with the matching sequence is implanted through In Vitro Fertilization, or IVF (Fatima). The embryos that either contain the genetic disease or are not a perfect match are discarded (Fatima). Parents choose this method when they already have a child, who is very ill and the only way for them to be cured is a bone marrow, or any other organ, donation needed from an exact genetic match. The first savior sibling born was Adam Nash who was born in October 2000 and provided umbilical cord blood stem cells which were used to treat his sister Molly who was affected be a genetic condition called Fanconi's Anaemia (Shapiro). Savior siblings however are sometimes considered 'spare part babies' and people believe that the parents will not love or care for the child as much as they simply had them to save their other child, although this has never been proven to be true. Family counselors have argued that savior siblings can in fact be beneficial to both the family and the new child (Jackson). This new child will most likely receive immense love from the family, as they just saved their sibling's life. The new child would also develop a strong bond with the sibling whose life they saved, according to experts (Jackson). However, this is clearly not going to be the case 100% of the time, but some children never receive love from their families regardless of if they were born a savior sibling or not. If a family has good morals and intentions, they will love all of their children, regardless of why they are born.

Another little known benefit that can come from human genetic engineering is in the field of pharmaceuticals. By transferring a human gene to a microorganism a new strain of microorganism can be developed which could lead the microorganism to produce substances like insulin. The insulin that is used by diabetics often comes from this process (Doudna). This type of genetic engineering would use human genes to modify another organism, which is much less risky and could benefit humans very much.

Human genetic engineering is very controversial. Many people fear that human genetic engineering will lead to the creation of 'designer babies'. Designer babies are defined in the Oxford English dictionary as "a baby whose genetic makeup has been artificially selected by genetic engineering combined with in vitro fertilization to ensure the presence or absence of particular genes or characteristics." Parents would have the ability to pick their child's hair color, eye color, whether they were athletic or not, and possibly their intelligence level (Gert). Creating designer babies has been compared to Hitler and the Nazi's attempting to create an 'Aryan race', which is defined in the Encarta Dictionary as "in Nazi ideology, a white person of non-Semitic descent regarded as racially superior". If one is genetically modified before their birth, parents take away their rights to autonomy, or ones freedom to govern themselves (Gert). Everyone deserves the right to decide what is done to their own body, yet if they are genetically modified before their birth they are not given that right, which many view as immoral to the fetus. Human genetic engineering can take away free-will as certain genetic enhancements, such as athleticism or musical talents, would choose the path of an individual rather than allow them to choose their own. If any genetic engineering is done to an embryo or fetus before they are born, then they do not have a decision in whether or not they are genetically modified, something that all humans deserve the right to choose. If parents modified the embryo of their future child to be athletic, when that child is born and is growing up they would not choose to play sports, rather it would be chosen for them, built into their DNA. Stated in the Declaration of Independence is the famous line "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness". This line means that everybody in America should be treated the same and have equal opportunities as everybody else. However, if wealthy parents choose to genetically modify their unborn child for hair color or eye color, intelligence or athletic ability, then that child would be born with an advantage over one who was unmodified.

Genetic engineering has caused major conflict between religion and science. Many religions feel that human genetic engineering is 'Playing God' as it would allow people to choose their own path or to create themselves how they want to be, rather than how God has intended (Moral and Ethical Issues in Gene Therapy). Genetic engineering would involve altering fundamental aspects of human makeup, which some believe that as humans we have no right to attempt. Many religious individuals feel that just because scientists are capable of doing something does not simply mean that they should, and that the line has to be drawn when science has gone too far (Moral and Ethical Issues in Gene Therapy). Francis Crick, who discovered the structure of DNA, has been quoted as saying "We used to think that our fate was in our stars. Now we know that, in large measure, our fate is in our genes." If mankind were to be able to pick and choose their own genes, it would therefore imply that they were choosing their own future for themselves and their posterity. Many religions believe that God will choose their path and life and that they should trust it, yet if man becomes able to choose their fate of themselves and change the world forever (Moral and Ethical Issues in Gene Therapy). It is unknown how the world will be in one hundred years or the new professions that will have stemmed from choosing fate. 

The debate is referred to as "physis" vs. "nomos" which means natural progression against human intervention.  Many individuals are too deep-rooted in either their religious or scientific ways to feel that reaching a middle ground between the two involving human genetic engineering is impossible (Juengst). Some Christians, however feel that within the bible God gives man the right to conform the Earth as he pleases. This explanation is backed up when God says to Adam to "Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth" (Genesis 1:28). Many Christians believe that it is better to be imperfect and to be created by their superior, God, than to be perfect yet only manufactured by an equal, or another man.

In the Jewish community, genetic engineering is still as controversial, but is more accepted than it is in the Christian world. In Judaism, it is believed that among all of the commandments stated in the Torah that the preservation of human life is regarded with supreme importance (Glenn). Because of that belief many members of the Jewish religion feel that human genetic engineering implemented to prolong human life would be allowed. It is believed that as long as the effectiveness of the procedure was to outweigh the risks that human genetic engineering would be considered a worthwhile and lifesaving procedure.

Within negative engineering there are two sub classifications: somatic modification and germ-line modification (Hodgkinson). In somatic modification genes are added to cells, and can be a cure for diseases caused by defective genes (Hodgkinson). These modifications, however, cannot be inherited because they do not involve the germ-line, which means that if a hereditary disease were to be cured it could still be passed on to future generations (Hodgkinson). This engineering can only take place in somatic cells, or a cell forming the body of an organism (Hodgkinson). Somatic modification has already had clinical trials begin to take place (Hodgkinson). These trials have been focused mostly on the treatment of cancers and blood disorders (Hodgkinson). In germ-line modification, embryos are modified, which therefore causes the fixed gene to be permanent (Hodgkinson).  This type of modification would be performed on the germ cells, which are cells that give rise to the gametes of organisms, which are able to reproduce sexually. Germ-line modification would be highly effective to treat genetic disorders, but has not yet been experimented in humans because of safety, technical, and ethical reasons.

Positive engineering, unlike negative, would not cure or treat any genetic diseases, but instead enhance an individual (Hodgkinson). A perfectly healthy and disease free person could have genetic surgery done to improve their good traits. Positive engineering could be as simple as improving vision or hearing, or as complex as improving a lifespan (Hodgkinson). Positive engineering would include designer babies as well as adults that would choose to be modified (Hodgkinson). This particular classification of human genetic engineering is often highly controversial. Many religions are against positive modification as it does not cure somebody, but simply allows an individual to pick and choose characteristics. 

Genetic engineering is a relatively new science that has already proven to be exceptionally beneficial to the medical world. It must continue to be studied in order to discover new medical breakthroughs. Knowing that these advancements are on the brink of discovery, to halt research in the genetic engineering field would be to deprive families and children who are  sick without a cure when scientists are so close. It is owed to those with terminal illnesses to put forth all of the efforts and resources necessary in order to find a cure for them and make them healthy and strong once again. Everybody deserves a chance to live out their lives, and genetic engineering could give hundreds of thousands more people that priceless opportunity. Laws would need to be put in place in order to ensure gene modification is only performed on ill patients or on embryos of parents carrying genetic diseases. Positive engineering should be deemed illegal and any borderline cases would have to adhere to a trial before proceeding forward. This new law would satisfy a majority of the population against genetic engineering, as well as conserve our population as genetically diverse. 

