 Affirmative action was implemented in the 1960's by President John F. Kennedy and was originally intended to provide equal opportunities to minority groups across the country. This policy ensured that minorities were treated equally in education and in the workplace regardless of race, gender, or religion. An article on the National Conference of State Legislatures website describes affirmative action policies as, " ... those in which an institution or organization actively engages in efforts to improve opportunities for historically excluded groups in American society" (NCSL 1). The policy was originally instituted in order to offer a much needed advantage to minorities who were discriminated against due to America's racially biased history. After 1965 many colleges began to adopt this policy offering a significant advantage to minority applicants in the admissions process, therefore steadily increasing the enrollment rates for minority applicants over time. However, the need for these affirmative action policies in college admissions has decreased and they are no longer necessary to promote diversity on college campuses. In order to make the college admissions process more inclusive and diverse, race based affirmative action should be eliminated and alternative policies such as the top x% program and class based affirmative action should be instituted across the United States.

Why All Colleges Should Ban Race Based Affirmative Action in the Admissions Process

Many opponents of affirmative action believe that these policies increase the amount of race consciousness in America by placing a stigma on those admitted under the policy. Maimon Schwarzschild, a professor at University of San Diego's School of Law, argues that, "Racial preferences enhance race consciousness in a country -- and world -- in which racism has already done incalculable mischief" (445). There is no doubt that racism has caused an extensive amount of damage and is disturbingly profound in American history. However, since the 1960s America has been moving forward by working to decrease race consciousness in order to see everyone as equal, regardless of the color of their skin. Schwarzschild also argues that these policies place a stigma on minority students and graduates, suggesting that they did not earn their admission (445). Whether they receive an advantage under affirmative action or not, minority students already deal with countless stereotypes. The stigma of undeserved admission only increases the amount of racial consciousness on college campuses. By using race as a factor in admissions America is essentially moving backwards in its fight to eliminate racial inequality and consequently, these policies are not helping to increase diversity in American universities.

Some argue that affirmative action is necessary in order to diversify college campuses and prevent the enrollment rates of minority students from declining. As an avid supporter of affirmative action and its policies Taghreed Alhaddab argues that, "Affirmative Action plays a crucial role in creating racially diverse campuses, and it is very challenging for universities to admit minority applicants without keeping race-based preferences in their admission policies" (1).  However, results found in studies done by Mark Long and Richard Kahlenberg suggest the opposite. These two studies find that when alternatives to affirmative action such as the top x% policy or class/economic based affirmative action policies are implemented, minorities are not significantly affected (Long 1033), in fact in many cases minority enrollment actually increased at institutions in which affirmative action was banned. After conducting extensive research on this topic I believe that there is not enough evidence to prove that these policies would decrease minority enrollment and that this problem should not be heavily considered in the debate of eliminating race based affirmative action policies.  It is evident that the traditional affirmative action policies are becoming increasingly insignificant and that banning them would not have a substantial effect on qualified minority applicants

The Effect of Affirmative Action on Minority Applicants 

One of the biggest setbacks to banning affirmative action nationwide is the belief that doing so might lower minority enrollment rates or might even deter minorities from applying to selective universities in the first place. However, a study conducted by Card and Krueger suggests the opposite. In this study they tracked the application and SAT score sending patterns of minority students before and after the ban of affirmative action in Texas and California. They found that, "Highly qualified minorities did not seem to be adding lower-quality 'safety schools' to the list of institutions receiving their test scores in the post-affirmative action era" (Card and Krueger 432). The evidence that applications to safety schools did not increase after the ban of affirmative action reveals that minority students believe that they will still be admitted to the universities of their choosing without the affirmative action policy. Card and Krueger conclude their study by arguing that, " ... the elimination of affirmative action had little or no effect on the application behavior of highly qualified minority students in California or Texas" (432). This study dismisses the argument that banning affirmative action policies will discourage minority students from applying to selective universities. Although the benefits of these current policies are significant, students believe in their own academic success and therefore will not be deterred from applying to the universities of their choice.

Currently, minorities receive a great benefit from the affirmative action policies at most universities. Selective universities especially offer great favor to minority applicants, continuously admitting minority students with significantly lower SAT scores than other students in the applicant pool. In their study, David Card and Alan Krueger found that before affirmative action was banned in California and Texas, these schools were admitting minority students with SAT scores that were about 150 points lower than their fellow applicants at the three most selective UC campuses and Texas schools (419). This is an extremely significant gap and is a clear indication that minority students are receiving a substantial boost in the admissions process when it comes to SAT scores. A student's race has no correlation with their intelligence or their ability to perform well on standardized tests. This is undoubtedly unfair to the other applicants in the admissions pool who are not receiving this type of preferential treatment. 

Is Affirmative Action Justified?

Affirmative action was justified in the 1960s when racism was still rampant in the United States. It is uncontested that minority students during this time needed the advantage in the admissions process more than anyone else because the majority of them were living in poor and under-educated communities. However this has changed, America is evolving and every citizen is offered an equal chance and given the same opportunities as the next person. Minorities continue to flourish in the United States and while this may be a direct result of the affirmative action policies of the past, it is no longer justified nor needed in order for minorities to continue to prosper in this country.

In an article discussing Stanford University's affirmative action policies, David Sacks and Peter Thiel argue that affirmative action is an outdated policy that does not accurately reflect the academic abilities of the students who are admitted to the University. Sacks and Theil argue that, "The real problem with affirmative action is that we are pretending to solve a problem that no longer exists" (9). Although there will always be racism in America, as well as every other country in this world, it is becoming less and less prevalent. We are nowhere near where we were in the 1960s. Our country has grown and prospered and there is no need to offer aid for a problem that has been eliminated more than two decades ago. Another issue brought up by Sacks and Thiel is the SAT gap between minority and majority applicants. It is common knowledge that SAT scores are evaluated differently depending on the applicant. However, the SAT gap between minority and majority applicants is shocking. Sacks and Theil report that, "The average SAT disparity between Stanford's African-American and white admittees reached 171 points in 1992" (4). A 171 point gap is considerable, especially in the application process of a selective school such as Stanford, where admission is extremely competitive. There is no appropriate way to justify admitting a student with an SAT score 171 points lower than a student who was not admitted, just based on race alone. 

In a news debate featured on Arise America, Hughey Newsome commentates on the inequality of these affirmative action policies and discusses their significance, specifically at the University of Michigan. He debates with George B. Washington who argues that minority students bring a different perspective to university life and a ban on affirmative action will deter them from applying to that school. In addition, he states that the ban of affirmative action on is "erroneous" and "the opposite of equality".  Newsome rebuts his argument by stating that the university had, " ... an admissions policy that basically gave favoritism to minority applicants. A policy that did not offer equality but rather favorability to minority applicants". Newsome concludes the debate by arguing that a race neutral admissions policy should be put into effect in order to make the admissions process equal and inclusive. I believe that a race neutral admissions policy is a viable alternative to affirmative action. More universities should start to move away from race based affirmative action and start looking into alternatives to make the admissions process fairer. Race neutral policies such as economic affirmative action are also becoming more popular amongst American citizens, while the support for race based affirmative action has been steadily declining. 

Recent events show that affirmative action has become quite unpopular amongst the American people and it is being constantly challenged in courts of law across the nation. The University of Texas, the University of California, and Michigan University are just a few of the institutions that have been sued for their affirmative action policies (Card and Krueger 417). Lawsuits have forced many of these universities to adopt alternative policies to race based affirmative action. In his article, "Race and College Admissions: An Alternative to Affirmative Action", Mark Long states that, "California's Proposition 209, which passed in 1996, reinforced the UC Regents' resolution by banning race-based preferences in public education, employment, and contracting" (1020). After this proposition was passed, all UC schools halted the use of race based consideration in the admissions process and adopted new policies. Not only is affirmative action legally unpopular, but it is unpopular amongst American voters as well. In his book A Better Affirmative Action, Richard Kahlenberg (in the graph shown above) reports data showing that, "Racial preferences in higher education remain highly unpopular among voters, who consistently register opposition by a two-to-one margin" (4).  Race based affirmative action is also unfavorable in both republican and democratic states when put up to voters in multiple states (Kahlenberg 4). It is evident that voters on both sides of the political spectrum agree that affirmative action is no longer needed in the college admissions process. Affirmative action policies seem to cost more than they're worth for public universities across the nation. Banning race based affirmative action in the college admissions process could minimize the amount of lawsuits brought against universities in court as well as help them become more popular in the public eye. A new and more favorable policy should be instituted across America as a replacement in order to appeal to the American people.

Alternative Methods to Affirmative Action

Since race based affirmative action has been banned in many states across the country, there are many examples of universities who adopted alternative methods and were successful in maintaining diversity as well as equality on campus. Two policies that have been changing the admissions process are top x% programs which were instituted in Texas and California and class based affirmative action which has been instituted in Israel as well as many other states in America. These policies are practical alternatives to affirmative action and should be considered by all universities as possible options.

Top x% percent policies are policies in which admission is guaranteed to in-state students who graduate in the top x% of their high school class (Long 1020). This policy applies to all in-state students and offers a fair chance of admission across all races. If instituted this program would not only increase the equality of the admissions process but also maintain diversity on college campuses. However, many believe that this policy does not help to promote diversity on college campuses. Opponents such as Taghreed Alhaddab argue that, Texas top 10% programs have "negligible changes" in minorities' admission probabilities compared to Affirmative Action especially at the most selective universities (4).  Alhaddab's argument does not hold up to the facts of this topic however. In his book A Better Affirmative Action Richard Kahlenberg reports, (in the graph pictured below) that minority enrollment at the University of Texas actually increased after the top x% program was put into place (29). Texas is a great example of an equal and race-blind admission policy that can promote racial diversity on campus. A top x% program should be considered by all universities in an effort to promote diversity on all fronts, without the dismissal of equality. 

Another separate, but closely related alternative to race based affirmative action is class based affirmative action. Class based affirmative action policies " ... provide a boost to those applicants who have demonstrated achievement while having had to overcome social and economic disadvantages" (Roach 1). It is important to take into account the socioeconomic backgrounds of students and the obstacles they may have faced which could have hindered their academic abilities. Israel was one of the first countries to implement class based affirmative action and their secondary education continues to prosper. Class based affirmative action policies in Israel, " ... put forward a distinctive --  and theoretically attractive -- design. It is completely race-neutral and also need-blind" (Alon 124). By instituting these policies Israel's universities have created an environment of students from different economic backgrounds, races, and social classes. Diversity was achieved on every level, making class based affirmative action a practical alternative to race based affirmative action.

Opponents of class based affirmative action suggest that many students who receive admission under this program are not as academically qualified as their fellow applicants (Schwarzschild 451). While this is absolutely true, it is still important to recognize that students admitted under this program achieved academic success under difficult circumstances and crippling lower-class education. These students are extremely hard working. Class based affirmative action instituted in Colorado proved that, " ... students admitted through class-based affirmative action do not fall further behind their peers over the course of their post-secondary careers" (Gaertner 436). Although students admitted under this policy enter college significantly behind their peers, their life experiences have prepared them for difficult times and they have proven themselves to be successful in spite of them. Students from low socioeconomic backgrounds are hardworking and instituting class based affirmative action policies would provide them with opportunities to succeed that would not be offered otherwise.

Class Based Affirmative Action is the Right Choice

Class based affirmative action is an extremely viable alternative to affirmative action. This policy not only helps to foster racial diversity but socioeconomic diversity as well. Many minorities now consider themselves middle or upper class citizens and are no longer at an educational disadvantage. However, Americans in the lower class, regardless of race, are at a significant disadvantage educationally. The American Psychological Association reports that, students from low socioeconomic (SES) backgrounds entered high school 3.3 grade levels behind and graduated 4.3 grade levels below students from higher SES schools (13). This clearly puts students from low SES at a huge disadvantage when applying to college. Students cannot help the educational system that they are placed into and it is a shame that such an unpreventable problem can stop them from being admitted to the school of their choosing. In my opinion, the issue of social class should be more highly weighted than race in the college admissions process in order to offer more opportunities to students who were previously denied them. 

Another issue in which colleges use race as a factor when in reality class should be considered is SAT scores. Colleges continuously admit minority students with SAT scores lower than their fellow applicants based upon their race. However, students from low socioeconomic backgrounds score 399 points lower than average, while African American students score an average of only 56 points lower (Kahlenberg 5). It is evident that times have changed and although minorities may have needed the advantage in the 1960s, the students who really need it now are the ones that come from disadvantaged backgrounds. If universities adopt class based affirmative action they will be giving the gift of a college education to students who have faced countless obstacles but have still managed to prove a significant amount of academic and social achievement despite their hardships. Without class based affirmative action these students will not have a chance at an education they undoubtedly deserve.

The affirmative action policies that are currently in place at the majority of American universities are outdated and are not necessary in order to diversify college campuses across America. Banning affirmative action nationwide would not be detrimental to already diverse campuses, and it has been proven that many programs that were implemented to replace affirmative action actually increased diversity on campus. In addition, these policies are a financial burden to many universities, due to the amount of lawsuits they face because of the use of race in admissions. The real injustice of race based affirmative action is not that it is unfair to other applicants, but rather that it takes away opportunities from students who need them. Students from low socioeconomic backgrounds receive an extremely low quality of education and are therefore immensely unprepared when the time comes for them to apply to college. Universities across America should eliminate race based affirmative action and consider the use of class based policies in their admissions process. Class based affirmative action policies are a more viable alternative and aid in providing equal opportunities to students of all races and socioeconomic backgrounds. 

